To better understand the genetic diversity and drug resistance-associated mutations of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains isolated from 118 drug-naive individuals in Shanghai. pol genes of the patients were amplified by nest reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and nucleotide sequence. REGA HIV-1 Subtyping Tool and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) HIV Subtyping Tool were used to identify the subtypes of obtained sequences. Drug-resistance-associated mutations in protease and reverse transcriptase regions were analyzed with Stanford University HIV Drug Resistance Database. The results showed that CRF01_AE predominated in Shanghai with 48.3%, followed by subtype B (30.5%), CRF07_BC (12.7%), CRF08_BC (5.9%), and C (1.7%). Besides, one inter-subtype and inter-CRF recombinants B/CRF01_AE (0.8%) was detected. Protease inhibitor-associated primary resistance mutations were found in 2 (1.7%) cases: M46L and Q58E each. The mutations conferring primary resistance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) were detected in 3 (2.4%) and 5 (4.1%), respectively (NRTI: M41L、D67N、T69I/N/S、K70L、L74V、V75L、V118I、M184V、L210W/F/M/S and T215F；NNRTI: V90I、L100V、K103R/N、V106M/P/I/G、E138G/A、V179E/D/T、Y181C、G190A、H221Y、F227L、K238S和Y318F). This study reveals that CRF01_AE predominates in Shanghai. Antiretroviral drug resistance among untreated HIV-1-infected individuals is 5.9%. The monitoring of HIV-1 drug resistance mutations should be paid more attention. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients should take drug resistance test before antiretroviral therapy in future．

The present paper aims to develop a rapid, accurate and efficient technique to detect enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CA16) simultaneously for the etiological investigation of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in children during epidemic seasons in Beijing. Primers including one pair of universal enterovirus primers based on highly conserved region of 5’UTR of enteroviruses and two pairs of type-specific primers based on highly conserved VP1 region of EV71 and CA16 were designed and used at different concentrations in one single reaction tube to develop a multiplex reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) which was carried out with two annealing temperatures. After the sensitivity and specificity of the multiplex RT-PCR were evaluated, the technique was applied to use for detecting EV71 and CA16 from clinical specimens collected from pediatric patients with HFMD who visited the Children’s Hospital Affiliated to Capital Institute of Pediatrics during the period of March to October in 2010. All the specimens were also inoculated into the Vero cells for virus isolation, which was used as a golden standard for this study. The minimum detectable concentration for CA16 and EV71 were 5.32 pg/ml and 0.64 pg/ml, respectively. The specificity of multiplex RT-PCR was 100%. The application of multiplex RT-PCR in 381 clinical samples collected from 371 HFMD cases showed that the total positive rate was 78.4%, of which the detection positive rates of CA16 and EV71 were 32.6% and 35.8% (the tested positive ratio of CV16:EV71 was 1:1.1). Comparative analysis with virus isolation demonstrated that the detection accuracy of this method was up to 95.2% for CA16 and 98.6% for EV71. The results indicate that this novel multiplex RT-PCR offers a rapid, sensitive and time-saving method to detect EV71 and CA16 from clinical specimens and can be used for the etiological surveillance of HFMD. Both CA16 and EV71 were still the major pathogens of HFMD in Beijing in 2010.

The paper aimed to study the mechanism of 2009 influenza type A H1N1 (A/H1N1/2009) by detecting the levels of serum cytokines in patients with influenza A/H1N1/2009 before and after oseltamivir treatment. Twebty healthy volinteers were selected as control and 30 patients with influenza A/H1N1/2009 were divided into before oseltamivir treatment group (BTG) and after oseltamivir treatment group (ATG). The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to detect the levels of interleukin 10 (IL-10), IL-2, IL-8 and interferon γ (IFN-γ) in serum. The results were shown as follows. The serum levels of IL-10, IL-2, IL-8 and IFN-γ in BTG were significantly higher than those in the control group (P<0.05). Compared with those in the contol group, the serum levels of IL-10, IL-2 and IL-8 in ATG were also significantly higher (P<0.05), while the level of IFN-γ was not significant (P>0.05). The levels of IL-10 did not change significantly between BTG and ATG (P>0.05). Compared with those in BTG, the levels of IL-2 and IFN-γ in ATG were significantly decreased（P<0.05）, however the level of IL-8 was significantly higher （P<0.05）. The results suggest that IL-10, IL-2, IL-8 and IFN-γ may be related with the pathogenesis of A/H1N1/2009 influenza; IL-2, IL-8 and IFN-γ may be involved in antiviral mechanism of oseltamivir.

Approach to syphilis antibodys of stnadurd treated at  previousli untreated and after treatment syphilis change with syphilis serological  tests. Evaluation value of syphilis were used by syphilis serological test detection in the diagnosis of the clinie. Dark field microscopy, RPR, TPPA and TP-IgM-ELISA tests were detected by 135 previously untreated and after completion  treatment of syphilis. 135  previously untreated patients: In 24 cases of primary chancre syphilis,the dark field microscopy  were positive, RPR and TPPA and  TP-IgM-ELISA  of serological test were positive in 83.3%, 91.7% and 91.7% of, respectively. All the serological tests were positive in 93 patients with secondary syphilis. In 18 early latent syphilis, the serological tests were positive 88.9%, 100.0% and 88.9%,respectivedy. 12  months after completion of treatment in RPR and TP-IgM-ELISA test, 20 and 22 primary syphilis were negative in 100.0%. 93 of secondary syphilis were negative in 64.5% and 67.7%, respectively. 18 early latent syphilis were negative in 38.9% in RPR and TP-IgM-ELISA test, respectively. These results reflect the associations of treponemal serological test, when RPR and TP-IgM-ELISA tests is positive, TPPA test is positive well in  previously untreated syphilis,which the TPPA is higher sensitivity method to detect aerly latent syphilis. Twelve months after completion treatment of syphlis , when TP-IgM-ELISA test is negative， RPR test is negative basically. It is indicated that RPR and TPPA test are the best of  serological test of syphilis with clinical  routine diagnosis and obaservation.

Sphingomonas paucimobilis (S. paucimobilis) is Gram-negative bacillus that is widely distributed in the natural environment. It has been reported to cause opportunistic infection in immunocompromized hosts. The infection has been reported in the postoperative wound, post-traumatic leg ulcer, septicemia, meningitis, chronic cellulitis and postoperative endophthalmitis. No previous cases of infective endocarditis caused by S. paucimobilis have been reported. Here a case of infective endocarditis caused by S. paucimobilis was reported to help understand this disease. The middle-aged male patient was admitted to the hospital because of recurrent fever for more than two months. The first episode was high fever companied with pain in the left-upper abdomen. Computer topography (CT) suggested an infarction in spleen. Physical examination revealed that skin petechiae and heart murmur. Laboratory examination revealed transient anemia, microscopic hematuria, positive rheumatoid  factor, and echocardiography suggested emerging valvular regurgitation. Anti-infection treatment was effective. The same S. paucimobilis was isolated from peripheral blood culture four times and thus the diagnosis of endocarditis by S. paucimobilis was confirmed. The results of drug sensitivity testing showed pan-susceptible. The patient fully recovered by anti-infection treatment with mitral valve replacement operation. He was a healthy man without systematic diseases and the infection was community-aquired, which was different from most reports.

Bacterial culture test, the gold standard of diagonosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection, is the most reliable method for diagnosing gonorrhea.. However, very weak resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae leads to culture failure. Dection of bacterial morphology only means limited significance for diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. With the antibiotics resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae growing, multi-resistant bacteria have appeared and wildly spreaded. The simple techniques of molecular biology with high sensitivity and high specificity such as single tube multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been applicated for laboratory diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection. showing encouraging prospects.

Human papillomavirus(HPV) infection is an important causes of cervical cancer. From HPV infection to carcinogenesis , a number of co-factors are required. All the co-factors can cause the increase of local concentration of nitric oxide. The nitric oxide can affect the transcription and translation of HPV, but also play an important regulatory role in carcinogenesis. Clarifying the relationship of nitric oxide, human papillomavirus infection and cervical cancer is very important to develop experimental drug platform.

microRNA (miRNA), an abundant class of 22nt highly conversed, small noncoding RNA, can make mRNA degradation or influence mRNA translation via a complementary with the 3’-UTR of the miRNA. Recently, more studies show the effects of these noncoding small RNAs on immune system development and response, and miRNA is involved in the regulation of immunity, including the development and differentiation of immune cells, antibody production, in?ammatory mediator release and signal transduction in cells. miRNA is considered to play roles in maintaining the homeostasis of immune system and immune-associated diseases. Here, the latest ?ndings are summarized to explore the function and mechanism of miRNA in modulating innate and adaptive immune responses.

Because of evolution for millions of years, microbial pathogens have developed specific strategies to manipulate host cell functions for their own benefits. Many of these measures involve interference with host immune responses, regulation of host cell cycle or induction of programmed cell death. During the past few decades, there has been remarkable progress in the understanding of microbial pathogens interfering with the host cell cycle and its putative role in diseases. Here, we review some pathogenic microorganisms arresting host cell cycle at different phages and their mechanisms, especially some pathogenic bacteria delivering effector protein into host cells to modulate the host function. Therefore, further research on the mechanisms of host cell cycle manipulated by pathogenic microorganisms can serve as a clue to understand host-pathogen interaction and its pathogenesis, which may be useful for the development of new drug targets and (or) vaccine candidates.

The use of the term “emerging” implies something new and threatening to human kind, either arising de novo or of an agent unexpectedly coming to our attention from a previously unknown source or with hitherto unrecognised characteristics. Indeed several new agents have caused serious harm, both in terms of mortality and morbidity as well as economic loss. It is for these reasons that emerging infectious diseases of humans and animals are of mounting concern to public health officials and infectious disease specialists alike. Since the early 1990’s, the term has come to embrace in its loosest sense those diseases that were hitherto unknown infections that have been considered as under control, only to re-emerge in a new geographical location or with renewed vigour, or both. Many until recently have been the preserve of those specialists with a particular interest in tropical or veterinary diseases, rarely coming into the consciousness of clinicians or microbiologists in the developed world apart from isolated, imported cases. All this has......

Disposal of infectious waste is a pivotal step in biosafety management in laboratories. The Chinese government has issued constitutional laws and statutes on disposal of infectious waste for averting pollution. During our 3 years management of a biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratory, we encountered some contradictions in the disposal of infectious waste, including the package of solid infectious waste for sterilization and disposal, damage to the autoclave by disinfectant used in treating the waste, and disposal methods for liquid infectious waste. Additional experiences from our management of a BSL-3 laboratory are discussed.